Descriptive and Inferential Statistics in Research ( I/O Psychology College Paper submitted by Sean Delevan)

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics in Research

RES731

Sean Delevan

6 August 2015

Professor XXXXXX XXXXXXX

            All research will require the inclusion of descriptive and inferential statistics to ensure that validity and reliability are achieved. Descriptive statistics maintains the “goal of describing and summarizing research data” (Christensen et al., 2011, pg.2/30). In the absence of data summarization, data obtained during research can be cumbersome and difficult to understand. Comparatively, inferential statistics is intended to “go beyond the immediate set of data and to infer characteristics of populations based on sample data” (Christensen et al., 2011, pg.2/30).

The purpose of this paper is to present and interpret descriptive and inferential statistics shown in a particular research study. The study is about child abuse around the world conducted by Jim Hopper, Ph.D., published in January of 2015. In the review of this paper will be an examination of how Hopper prepares, organizes, and manages data before, during, and after data analysis. Finally, there will be a discussion posted regarding the ethical guidelines that must be followed during the data collection and analysis processes.

Dr. Hopper conducted this study with the purpose of determining the lasting effects that child abuse against young boys has on several different and yet, interrelated areas. “These include issues distinctive to men, the brain bases of emotion regulation problems, and how mindfulness and contemplation can help people with histories of child abuse (and their therapists)” (Hopper, 2015). Dr. Hopper included in his study both descriptive and inferential statistics. In the hope of ensuring that the data collected was reliable, valid, and applicable to more than just one society, such as America, Dr. Hopper included child abuse statistics that were reported in the United States, Canada, England, and Internationally.

Inferential statistics were developed to help relay the severity of the problem on a global scale and was necessary because “most abused and neglected children never come to the attention of government authorities” (English, 1998). Government figures do not accurately reflect the actual number of children that suffer from child abuse and therefore, inference is necessary. Dr. Hopper was able to obtain the data he needed regarding child abuse statistics in each of these world regions in four different ways.

Taking from various other research studies as well as official government data that was provided to him for the purpose of research, Dr. Hopper compiled all the data provided by official government statistics, studies that surveyed people about their firsthand knowledge of child abuse and investigations that ask adults to report abuse they, personally may have experienced in their childhood. This type of data collection method is indicative of qualitative research as it is explained that such research is “employed traditionally in the social sciences and is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of behavior and the perceptions that drive it with reference to specific topics or issues” (Benford & Snow, 2000).

Once Dr. Hopper reviewed and collected each of these survey results and information compiled from official government records and other research studies, he then classified the data by type of abuse. The classifications of abuse included physical, sexual, and psychological. Once the data was appropriately organized in this manner, he then reorganized the data by the average age of the victims when the abuse occurred. This allowed for Dr. Hopper to determine what areas were more prone to specific types of child abuse, average ages of the abused, and most importantly, the most prevalent type of abuse each of these victims suffered.

 Once all of these statistics were generated, Dr. Hopper explained that he was able to determine what types of medical and psychological help each of these victims underwent and if it was helpful. The classifications of help received were presented in a survey wherein the choices were “no help”, “psychological counseling”, and “Self-help”. For those that were willing to participate further, Dr. Hopper conducted additional studies wherein surveys were provided to anonymous, and randomly selected participants with the intent of finding out how successful the help received has been in their ability to manage their lives in a healthy manner.

Once all of this data was compiled, reviewed, and organized, Dr. Hopper was then able to conclude that his hypothesis was nearly accurate in the sense that “young boys who suffered from sexual abuse as children for a period of 3 or more years, regardless of the region of the world they were from, were far less likely to see positive results from psychological counseling and/or meditation” (Hopper, 2015).

Quantitative data is cleaned up and recoded prior to the occurrence and development of a viable analysis. However, with qualitative, and large research approaches such as this, data cleanup, and analysis are conducted simultaneously and in tandem with one another. Although they are carried out in tandem, large-scale research such as Dr. Hopper’s requires that data preparation and analysis be divided and completed through the division of labor.

For the management of qualitative types of data in large-scale research such as this to be successful, there are a couple of things that need to be realized. “First, identical transcripts prevent the production of incompatible data products. Second, it reduces the chance that analysis will be compromised or delayed” (Firestone, 1987). Therefore, Dr. Hopper was required to create a coherent, cohesive, and orderly database to secure the possibility of a quality analysis. Data was coded and cleaned up in this particular research project by first identifying sources of error in the data collected. This is completed through the utilization of both human interaction as well as technological computation.

Because the research method that was used included the completion of surveys by participants as well as the review of official government records, researchers were then required to enter the results into a computer that would then allow for percentages and averages to be determined. One of the most common errors that occurs and is realized during the cleaning and coding process is human error in data input. Therefore, it is important to review the data to make sure that it is accurate and there are no erroneous variables that had been inputted. This is referred to as code-cleaning. “During this approach, possible codes for each question before the data is entered. Then, if a number outside of the pre-defined possibilities is entered, an error message appears” (Holzman, 2007).

Once these steps are achieved and the data is reviewed, coded, and organized, researchers are then required to catalog all documents pertinent to the study, check for missing data, and develop a process for reading and reviewing the text. In this research, the provision of data was presented in percentages depending on age range, region, and the type of abuse and sources of help received. Due to the nature of the research that was conducted, there are certain ethical guidelines that were required to have been followed as well. In all research there are similar ethical guidelines that are expected to be adhered to and they are referred to as ‘principles’.

The ethical principles that were present in Dr. Hopper’s research regarding the effects of child abuse was the adherence to conducting procedures in such a way that was not harmful to participants. All participants were aware of what they were participating in, the purpose for the research, and were allowed to withdraw at any time. Secondly, informed consent is required and was achieved by all participants and participating government agencies. Finally, anonymity was provided to all participants to ensure that personal information was protected and not publicly shared. This is also important when attempting to achieve ethical standards associated with mutual responsibility. “ From the beginning of each research investigation, there should be clear agreement between the investigator and the parents, guardians or those who act in loco parentis, and the child, when appropriate, that defines the responsibilities of each. The investigator has the obligation to honor all promises and commitments of the agreement” (SRCD, 2007).

References

Benford, R. D., & Snow, D. A. (2000). Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment. Annual review of sociology, 611-639.

Christensen, R., Burke, J., & Turner, L. (2011). Research methods, design, and analysis, Eleventh Edition. Pearson Education.

English, D. J. (1998). The extent and consequences of child maltreatment. The Future of Children, 39-53.

Firestone, W. A. (1987). Meaning in method: The rhetoric of quantitative and qualitative research. Educational researcher, 16(7), 16-21.

Holzmann, G. J. (2007). Design and Validation of. Computer Protocols. Retrieved from http://libvolume3.xyz/electronics/btech/semester8/internetengineering/protocolvalidation/protocolvalidationnotes2.pdf

Hopper, J. (2015). Child abuse: Statistics, resources, and research. Retrieved from http://www.jimhopper.com/abstats/#official-us

Society for Research in Child Development (SRDC) (2007). Ethical standards in research. Retrieved from http://www.srcd.org/about-us/ethical-standards-research